In the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias, and fast food restaurants emerged.Ĭarbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (made by enzymatic splitting of sucrose) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot and potato. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast. The Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing, and standardization of food. In the nineteenth-century "Age of Nationalism" cuisine became a defining symbol of national identity. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the Old World, such as cattle, sheep, pigs, wheat, oats, barley, rice, apples, pears, peas, chickpeas, green beans, mustard, and carrots, similarly changed New World cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the New World, such as potatoes, tomatoes, maize, beans, bell pepper, chili pepper, vanilla, pumpkin, cassava, avocado, peanut, pecan, cashew, pineapple, blueberry, sunflower, chocolate, gourds, and squash, had a profound effect on Old World cooking.
Historical oven baking, in a painting by Jean-François Millet, 1854Ĭommunication between the Old World and the New World in the Columbian Exchange influenced the history of cooking. Recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old. Anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago when hearths first appeared. Archaeological evidence from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe and the Middle East. Evidence for the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. There is evidence that Homo erectus were cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa has provided evidence supporting control of fire by early humans by 1 million years ago. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago.
The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade, and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though archaeological evidence for the same does not predate more than 1 million years.
Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans.
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Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Types of cooking also depend on the skill levels and training of the cooks. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from grilling food over an open fire to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, reflecting local conditions. Pots being heated to cook food in a dwelling in South IndiaĬooking, cookery, or culinary arts is the art, science, and craft of using heat to prepare food for consumption.